The rise of Indian nationalism was shaped by a combination of social, economic, and political factors during British colonial rule. The oppressive policies of the British government, coupled with the emergence of a new educated middle class and the introduction of Western ideas, played a key role in fostering nationalist sentiments across the country.

Social and Economic Foundations of Nationalism in India

1. Colonial Exploitation:
   British policies drained India of its wealth and resources. High taxation, forced cultivation of cash crops like indigo, and the destruction of traditional industries left Indians impoverished. For example, farmers were often burdened by land revenue systems like the Zamindari system, which led to widespread discontent and a growing desire for self-governance.
2. Social Reform Movements:
   Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Swami Dayanand Saraswati initiated movements such as the Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj. These movements addressed issues like caste discrimination, widow remarriage, and women’s education, instilling a sense of unity among Indians and paving the way for a national identity.
3. Emergence of the Middle Class:
   The introduction of English education created a new, educated middle class in urban areas. This class of lawyers, teachers, and journalists played a critical role in articulating nationalist demands. For instance, leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Surendranath Banerjee inspired many with their writings on British exploitation of India’s economy.

Birth of Indian National Congress: UGC NET Perspective

The Indian National Congress (INC) was established in 1885 by A.O. Hume, an Englishman, as a platform for educated Indians to discuss political issues. The INC initially focused on reforms rather than outright independence, making it a crucial step in India’s nationalist journey.

• Key Objectives of Early INC:

  • Demand for greater Indian representation in governance.
  • Advocacy for civil rights and economic reforms.
  • Use of petitions and meetings to raise issues with British authorities.

Ideologies and Programmes of the Indian National Congress, 1885–1920

The INC evolved through three distinct phases, each marked by different ideologies and strategies:

1. Early Nationalists (1885–1905):
   Leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Dadabhai Naoroji relied on petitions and dialogues to demand constitutional reforms. They believed in gradual change and were moderate in their approach.
   Example of Success: The reduction of military expenditure and administrative costs was one of their key achievements.

1. Assertive Nationalists (1905–1920):
   Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal sought immediate self-rule (Swaraj). Their methods included public rallies and boycotting British goods. Tilak’s slogan, “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it,” became famous.
   Example of Success: Mobilization against the Partition of Bengal.
2. Revolutionaries:
   Dissatisfied with the slow pace of change, groups like the Ghadar Party sought independence through radical means. Leaders like Khudiram Bose and Ashfaqulla Khan inspired youth to take up arms.
   Example: Bombing of British administrative offices to weaken colonial power.

Swadeshi and Swaraj: UGC NET Topic Explained

The Swadeshi Movement (1905) emerged as a response to the Partition of Bengal. It encouraged Indians to boycott British goods and promote local industries.

• Impact of Swadeshi:
  • Strengthened the domestic economy through the use of Indian-made goods.
  • Fostered unity among Indians across regions and communities.

Swaraj became a broader concept, symbolizing not just political freedom but also self-reliance and cultural revival.

Gandhian Mass Movements for UGC NET

Mahatma Gandhi’s entry into the freedom struggle transformed the nationalist movement into a mass-based initiative. His principle of Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) inspired millions.

1. Champaran Satyagraha (1917):
   Gandhi helped farmers in Bihar against the exploitative plantation system.
2. Kheda Satyagraha (1918):
   Farmers in Gujarat, burdened by taxes after crop failures, were supported by Gandhi in their fight for tax exemption.
3. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920):
   Gandhi called for the boycott of British schools, courts, and goods. This marked the first large-scale mass movement.

Subhas Chandra Bose and INA: UGC NET Important Leader

Subhas Chandra Bose took a more radical approach to independence. He founded the Indian National Army (INA) and sought to free India by collaborating with Axis powers during World War II.

• Key Achievements:
  • Formation of the Provisional Government of Free India.
  • Inspiring youth to join the INA with slogans like, “Give me blood, and I will give you freedom.”

Role of Middle Class in National Movement: UGC NET Perspective

The middle class, especially professionals like lawyers and teachers, played a central role in organizing political movements. Their efforts in drafting petitions, educating the masses, and leading organizations like the INC shaped the freedom struggle.

Women Participation in National Movement: UGC NET Insight

Women were integral to India’s independence movement. Leaders like Sarojini Naidu and Kasturba Gandhi inspired countless others to join protests, picket shops selling foreign goods, and address issues like education and widow remarriage.

Left Wing Politics: UGC NET Notes on Nationalism and Social Justice

The rise of Indian nationalism during British rule was deeply influenced by socio-economic struggles and the growing discontent among the working class and farmers. Left-wing politics in India emerged as a reaction to this exploitation, promoting the ideas of social justice, equality, and radical change in society.

Colonial Exploitation and the Rise of Leftist Ideologies

• Economic Policies of the British: The British imposed heavy taxes and exploited India’s resources. Farmers in rural areas were forced to grow cash crops like indigo, leading to poverty and famine. For instance, in Bengal, many small farmers lost their lands due to the exploitative Permanent Settlement system.
• Emergence of Leftist Groups: Dissatisfied with the slow progress of mainstream nationalist movements led by the elite, groups inspired by Marxist and socialist ideologies began organizing workers and peasants. They focused on fair wages, land reforms, and ending exploitation. Leaders like M.N. Roy and others initiated discussions on creating an egalitarian society.

Depressed Class Movement: UGC NET Perspective on Social Equality

The Depressed Class Movement arose to fight against the discrimination faced by marginalized communities, especially Dalits. These groups not only struggled for social justice but also connected their fight with the broader nationalist cause.

• Role of B.R. Ambedkar:
  Dr. Ambedkar emerged as a leading voice for the rights of the Dalits (then referred to as “Depressed Classes”). His initiatives included advocating for separate electorates to ensure Dalits had a political voice and fighting for equal access to public spaces like water tanks and temples.
• Key Achievements:
  • Formation of organizations like the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha to address Dalit grievances.
  • Negotiations during the Poona Pact (1932) to secure reserved seats for Dalits in legislative councils.

Communal Politics: Muslim League and the Creation of Pakistan for UGC NET

The rise of communal politics in India became a major challenge to the nationalist movement. Religious differences were politicized, and this ultimately led to the partition of India.

• Formation of the Muslim League:
  The All-India Muslim League was established in 1906 to safeguard the interests of Muslims. Initially, it worked for communal harmony, but by the 1940s, under Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s leadership, the League demanded a separate nation for Muslims—Pakistan.
• Demand for Pakistan:
  The two-nation theory, which proposed that Hindus and Muslims were distinct nations, gained traction. This idea was formalized during the Lahore Resolution of 1940.
  Example: The demand for Pakistan was based on the fear of Muslim marginalization in a Hindu-majority India.

Towards Independence and Partition: UGC NET Study Notes

As India approached independence, tensions between religious communities escalated. These tensions culminated in the partition of the country in 1947.

• Partition and Its Impact:
  The division of India into India and Pakistan caused massive displacement, with over 14 million people migrating across the borders. Communal violence erupted, leading to the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives.
  Example: Cities like Lahore and Delhi witnessed large-scale riots as people were forced to leave their homes.

India After Independence: Challenges of Partition for UGC NET

Integration of Indian Princely States

Post-independence, the integration of over 500 princely states into the Indian Union was a significant challenge.

• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel’s Role:
  Known as the “Iron Man of India,” Patel used diplomacy and, in some cases, military intervention to merge the princely states into India.
• Key Cases:
  • Hyderabad: The Nizam’s resistance was crushed through a military operation named Operation Polo.
  • Junagarh: The Nawab’s decision to join Pakistan was opposed, and the state was integrated into India after a referendum.
  • Kashmir: Kashmir’s accession to India led to the first Indo-Pak war (1947–1948).

Kashmir Issue: Ongoing Disputes and Relevance for UGC NET

The accession of Jammu and Kashmir to India remains a contentious issue. After the tribal invasion backed by Pakistan, the Indian government sought assistance from Maharaja Hari Singh, who agreed to join India under the condition of retaining autonomy.

• Result:
  The conflict over Kashmir led to the involvement of the United Nations and remains unresolved, with India and Pakistan claiming the territory in full.

B.R. Ambedkar: The Making of the Indian Constitution for UGC NET

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the chairman of the Drafting Committee, was instrumental in creating a Constitution that aimed to ensure justice, equality, and fraternity for all.

Key Features of the Indian Constitution

1. Fundamental Rights:
   Guaranteed rights such as equality, freedom of speech, and protection against discrimination.
2. Secularism:
   Established India as a state with no official religion, promoting harmony among all faiths.
3. Social Justice Provisions:
   Introduced affirmative action policies like reservations for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in education and government jobs.

Ambedkar’s Vision

Ambedkar emphasized that political independence would be meaningless without social and economic equality. His work ensured that the Indian Constitution became a tool for empowering the marginalized.

The Structure of Bureaucracy in India: UGC NET Notes on Governance

The Indian bureaucracy is a vital part of the country’s administration. It works under a structured and hierarchical system to ensure governance across all levels. Here’s a simplified look at its framework:

1. Hierarchical Structure

The Indian bureaucracy operates like a pyramid, starting with lower-level employees, such as clerks, and moving up to senior officials, including secretaries and cabinet secretaries. The Indian Administrative Service (IAS) is the most prestigious part of this hierarchy, with IAS officers handling policies at the national and state levels.

2. Merit-Based Recruitment

• Entry into the bureaucracy happens through exams like the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC).
• The selection process ensures that talented candidates, regardless of their background, get a fair opportunity to serve the nation.
• Challenges: Sometimes, political pressure undermines the meritocratic system.

3. Centralization and Accountability

• Decisions are mostly made at the national level. While this simplifies policy-making, it often overlooks local needs.
• Mechanisms like audits and reviews try to ensure accountability, though they sometimes face hurdles due to political interference.

4. Challenges in Bureaucracy

• Red Tape: Complex rules and procedures delay work.
• Political Interference: Decisions can be influenced by politics, affecting governance.
• Lack of Representation: Limited representation of marginalized groups makes addressing their issues challenging.

New Education Policy (NEP): UGC NET Highlights

The New Education Policy 2020 is a roadmap for transforming India’s education system. It emphasizes holistic learning and prepares students for the future.

Key Features of New Education Policy (NEP)

1. School Education:
   • The old 10+2 structure is replaced with a 5+3+3+4 format to focus on foundational learning.
   • More attention is given to reading, writing, and basic math in early grades.
2. Higher Education:
   • Students get flexible options to study multiple disciplines.
   • Vocational courses and internships are introduced to boost employment opportunities.
3. Language Learning:
   • Education in regional languages is promoted while retaining English as a global skill.
   • Example: Schools in Karnataka now teach in both Kannada and English to ensure students stay connected to their culture.

Economic Policies and Development: UGC NET Insights

India’s economic policies aim to reduce poverty and promote inclusive growth. Here’s a look at key aspects:

1. Planning Process

India has adopted planned economic development since independence:

• Five-Year Plans: These plans outlined national goals like reducing poverty and boosting industrial growth. For example, the Green Revolution was introduced in the 4th Five-Year Plan to improve agricultural productivity.

2. Development and Displacement

• Development projects, like building dams or highways, often displace communities.
• Tribals, who rely on forests for their livelihood, are the most affected.
• Efforts like the Forest Rights Act aim to balance development with the rights of displaced groups.

Linguistic Reorganization of States: UGC NET Notes on Centre-State Relations

1. Reorganization of States

• In 1956, the States Reorganisation Act restructured Indian states based on languages.
• Example: Andhra Pradesh was created for Telugu speakers.

2. Impact on Cultural Identity

• This reorganization helped preserve local languages and customs, allowing states to govern more effectively.

3. Centre-State Relations

• Linguistic states sometimes demand more autonomy.
• Federal policies balance state powers while ensuring national unity.

Foreign Policy Initiatives: UGC NET Key Points on Panchsheel

India’s foreign policy has always focused on peaceful coexistence and mutual respect.

1. Panchsheel Principles

These five principles guide India’s international relations:

• Mutual respect for territorial integrity.
• Non-interference in each other’s internal matters.
• Peaceful dispute resolution.

2. Regional Cooperation

• Organizations like SAARC aim to foster economic and cultural ties among South Asian countries.
• Example: India promotes trade and disaster management collaboration in the region.

Dynamics of Indian Politics: UGC NET Focus

1. Emergency Period (1975–1977)

• A state of emergency was declared, curtailing civil liberties and suspending elections.
• This period saw protests and the rise of political movements advocating for democracy.

2. Liberalization, Privatization & Globalization (LPG)

• In 1991, India embraced LPG reforms to integrate with the global economy:
  • Liberalization: Removed trade barriers, allowing foreign companies to enter.
  • Privatization: Public sector enterprises were sold to improve efficiency.
  • Globalization: Encouraged foreign investment in sectors like IT and telecom.

Conclusion

The rise of Indian nationalism was influenced by social, economic, and political factors during British rule. From colonial exploitation to the emergence of the middle class, movements like Swadeshi and Gandhian Satyagraha played a vital role. The independence struggle was marked by revolutionary actions, key leadership, and evolving ideologies that eventually led to India’s freedom.